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The hypodermic needle theory, also known as the “magic bullet” or “direct effects” model, is a communication theory that suggests that media messages are directly and uniformly injected into the minds of audiences, resulting in a predictable and uniform response (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955). According to this theory, audiences are passive and easily influenced by…

The meaning theory of media portrayal suggests that media messages are not simply neutral or objective descriptions of reality, but are constructed in a way that shapes how audiences interpret and understand the world around them. According to this theory, the meaning of media messages is not fixed or universal, but rather varies depending on…

The Two-Step Flow theory is a communication model that suggests that information flows through opinion leaders, who are influential people with a great deal of knowledge or interest in a particular topic (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1948). These opinion leaders receive information from the media and then pass it on to their followers or peers,…

Agenda-setting theory is a communication theory that posits that the media can influence the public’s perception of the importance of issues by highlighting some issues while ignoring others. The theory suggests that media coverage does not tell people what to think but instead tells them what to think about (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). The theory…

Cultivation theory is a theoretical framework in the field of media studies that explains how long-term exposure to media can shape people’s perceptions of reality. According to this theory, the more an individual is exposed to media content, the more their perceptions of reality become shaped by the media, resulting in the cultivation of shared…

Reinforcement theory is a well-established psychological theory that has been applied in various areas of media studies, such as advertising, social media, and video games (Chen & Wang, 2017; Hsu & Lu, 2017). The theory suggests that behavior can be modified through the use of positive or negative reinforcement, and that behavior is shaped by…

Cognitive dissonance theory has been a widely studied topic in the field of social psychology and media studies, as it provides a framework for understanding how individuals deal with conflicting beliefs, values, or ideas. While the theory has been useful in explaining many phenomena related to persuasion and attitude change, it has also faced criticism…

Information processing theory is a psychological model that explains how individuals perceive, process, and retrieve information from their environment. This theory has significant implications for media students as it can help them understand how people interact with media, the factors that influence their media use, and how media can influence their attitudes and behavior. In…

Absorption, immersion, and presence are interrelated concepts that play a crucial role in media studies. Absorption refers to the degree to which an individual becomes engrossed in a media experience, while immersion refers to the sensation of being fully surrounded by the media environment. Presence, on the other hand, refers to the sense of “being…

The Extended Transportation Imagery Model (ETIM) is a theoretical framework that was developed to explain how media messages influence individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through the use of vivid imagery and narrative transportation. The model is particularly relevant for media students who are interested in studying the impact of media messages on audiences. In this…

Mood Management Theory, developed by Zillmann in the 1980s, proposes that people engage in media consumption to regulate their emotions and mood. According to the theory, media consumption is an active and purposeful activity, where people seek to manage their emotions and mood, either by maintaining or enhancing their current mood or altering it (Zillmann,…

Structural affect theory is an approach to understanding how media texts generate affective responses, such as suspense, curiosity, and surprise, in their audiences (Carroll, 1996; Plantinga, 2009; Smith, 2014). This theory emphasizes the role of the narrative structure of a media text, as well as the way that it is presented, in shaping emotional responses…

Chatman’s narrative theory provides a valuable framework for media students to examine and comprehend how narratives operate across different forms of media. The theory highlights three crucial components that contribute to a coherent narrative: story, plot, and narration. Chatman asserts that these elements work together to create a meaningful and complex narrative (Chatman, 1978). One…

he character identification theory is a psychological theory that proposes that individuals tend to identify with fictional characters in media, such as movies, books, and video games. This theory suggests that people are more likely to identify with characters who share their values, beliefs, and experiences, and that this identification can have a significant impact…

Hypodermic Needle Theory suggests that media messages are directly injected into the audience and have an immediate and powerful effect. Some early research supported this theory, such as the famous “War of the Worlds” broadcast in 1938 that caused widespread panic among listeners. However, subsequent research has discredited the theory, showing that media effects are…